Indigenous Peoples
Who were the first settlers of West Windsor? Long before any Europeans were known to have set foot in North America, the land that would become West Windsor was inhabited by an indigenous society whose memories still linger in our topography: the Lenni Lenape.
West Windsor's Earliest Inhabitants
Indigenous migration during the last ice age
The origins of human habitation in West Windsor began during the tail end of the last Ice Age, as the great glacial fields that once covered most of North America receded north by 9,700 B.C.E. At an unknown point following this withdrawal, but reputedly by 6,000 B.C.E., the descendants of those who, according to prevailing theories, crossed the Bering land bridge by 16,500 years ago arrived on the East Coast.
The fog of time obscures the precise origin of the Lenni Lenape – the descendants of these ancient North American settlers. This civilization - a loose band of semi-nomadic tribes held together by their collective "Algonquin" language - was New Jersey's dominant indigenous group. The Lenni Lenape (literally, "Men of Men" but more accurately translated to "Original People" or “Real People”) resided in an area that encompasses much of present-day Delaware, southern New York, eastern Pennsylvania, and all of New Jersey. A peaceful people that frequently settled disputes between their much more bellicose neighbors, they relied on hunting, fishing, and agriculture for sustenance.
In the summer, large communities numbering in the hundreds came together to farm the land and harvest oysters and clams along the shores of the Delaware. In the winter, they split into small family groups that wandered the countryside to hunt. These clans were further divided into lineages, whose members typically resided with one another in one of several longhouses that demarcated immediate families (see the adjacent image). Such lineages were governed by chiefs ("sachems"), who led the tribe in battle, settled disputes, and acted as spokesmen in council. These leaders were appointed and dismissed by the group's eldest woman.
The fog of time obscures the precise origin of the Lenni Lenape – the descendants of these ancient North American settlers. This civilization - a loose band of semi-nomadic tribes held together by their collective "Algonquin" language - was New Jersey's dominant indigenous group. The Lenni Lenape (literally, "Men of Men" but more accurately translated to "Original People" or “Real People”) resided in an area that encompasses much of present-day Delaware, southern New York, eastern Pennsylvania, and all of New Jersey. A peaceful people that frequently settled disputes between their much more bellicose neighbors, they relied on hunting, fishing, and agriculture for sustenance.
In the summer, large communities numbering in the hundreds came together to farm the land and harvest oysters and clams along the shores of the Delaware. In the winter, they split into small family groups that wandered the countryside to hunt. These clans were further divided into lineages, whose members typically resided with one another in one of several longhouses that demarcated immediate families (see the adjacent image). Such lineages were governed by chiefs ("sachems"), who led the tribe in battle, settled disputes, and acted as spokesmen in council. These leaders were appointed and dismissed by the group's eldest woman.
The Walum Olum - A Creation Story
A typical Lenape longhouse
As the Lenape did not keep written records, what we know of their creation story is the result of European translations. The Walum Olum (translated to “Red Record” or “Red Score”) is a purported historical narrative of the tribe, transcribed by Transylvania College professor Constantine S. Rafinesque in 1836 in his work, The American Nations. According to Rafinesque, he acquired the Walum Olum from a “Dr. Ward of Indiana” who, in turn, obtained the original painted birch bark record from an elderly Lenape in return for medical services.
The saga tells of the creation story of the universe and the origins of humankind by the Great Manitou. It also tells of the tale of the Lenni Lenape and their journey across North America and, for our purposes, their settlement of “The Falls” (present-day Trenton) around 1396 during the reign of the Lenape leader Wolomenap (“Hollow Man”).
However, although Rafinesque’s writings were considered an accurate account by historians until the 1930s, more recent analyses have decreed the entirety of his work questionable, some even going so far as to call it a “forgery.” Yet, regardless of the truth of the Lenape’s origins – whether they arrived in "The Falls" (Trenton) in 1396 or far before – the tale serves as a reminder of the commonality of creation stories across the planet.
The saga tells of the creation story of the universe and the origins of humankind by the Great Manitou. It also tells of the tale of the Lenni Lenape and their journey across North America and, for our purposes, their settlement of “The Falls” (present-day Trenton) around 1396 during the reign of the Lenape leader Wolomenap (“Hollow Man”).
However, although Rafinesque’s writings were considered an accurate account by historians until the 1930s, more recent analyses have decreed the entirety of his work questionable, some even going so far as to call it a “forgery.” Yet, regardless of the truth of the Lenape’s origins – whether they arrived in "The Falls" (Trenton) in 1396 or far before – the tale serves as a reminder of the commonality of creation stories across the planet.
Lenape Subtribes
The Lenni Lenape consisted of three main dialect clans, whose bloodlines were based on matrilineal descent: the Munsee ("People of the Stony Country") in the north, the Unalachtigo ("People Who Live Near the Ocean") in the south, and the Unami ("People Down River") in the center of the tribe's overall territory. It was the Unami (originally pronounced Wu-nàu mee) that resided in what would become West Windsor. This group consisted of several subtribes that included, but were not limited to:
- The Raritans - This group resided around the river valley of that name, including on Staten Island. In 1646, there were an estimated 1,200 Raritans residing in New Jersey, comprised of twenty chieftainships. As a result of frequent floods, they were forced to move inland over time, into the region of Hunterdon County. Subsequent warfare forced their relocation to the mountains of Pennsylvania and northern New Jersey.
- The Navesinks (or Nauvesinghs) - this group lived south of the Raritans around Keyport and Matawan. "Navesink" is a Lenape word describing where a land becomes a point - much as it does at Sandy Hook.
- The Metedeconks - This group lived south of the Navesinks along the New Jersey coast, in the area around Brick Township. A river in this municipality is named after them.
- The Rancocus and Assiscunks - These two tribes lived in and around Burlington and along the Rancocus Creek. Their most prominent settlement, Ramcock, existed near present-day Rancocus.
- The Crosswicksungs - This tribe resided around present-day Crosswicks, New Jersey. Here, David Brainerd – famed Christian missionary – converted one of their most legendary leaders –Ockanickon.
- The Maroekongs - This tribe lived around Camden, and with the Atxions, numbered about three hundred. Their domain extended far eastward, towards the Manahawkins on the coast.
- The Amarongs - This group was located on the Pensauken Creek (after which the township was named) north of the Maroekongs.
- Last but certainly not least, The Assanhicans (or Assanpinks or Sanpinks) - Otherwise known as the "People of the Stony Brook," this group resided in the greater Trenton area, and were the specific sub-tribe that lived in what is now West Windsor. In Unami, "Assin" means stone. Many Assanpink relics have been found throughout West Windsor, especially along the banks of the Assunpink Creek around Edinburg!
New World vs Old World
Until the early 1600s, the Lenni Lenape only sporadically came into contact with European explorers, who called them the "Delaware," after the river nearby, itself named after Lord De La Warre, the first governor of the Virginia Company. At first, the Lenape's interactions with the first European settlers in the area - the Dutch - were peaceful and based on trade, with only occasional and small-scale instances of violence between Old World and New World cultures. The natives found many of the objects offered by the Europeans very attractive - such as firearms, cookware, blankets, fish hooks, looking glasses, bells, alcohol, musical instruments, fabrics, and tobacco. In turn, the Europeans were traded the pelts of various animals (beaver, otter, mink, and raccoon) in addition to land.
Unfortunately, the Europeans also gave the Lenni Lenape something very unwanted: myriad diseases from across the Atlantic, such as tuberculosis, measles, smallpox, and STDs. In fact, by 1750, the Lenape had lost more than 90 percent of their people, largely in part due to these afflictions.
Although Dutch traders often looked upon the natives with contempt, there was no wide-scale battle between the two tribes during the first years of contact. However, on February 25, 1643, this dynamic changed dramatically, when Willem Kieft - the director of New Netherlands - ordered a strike upon a group of Lenni Lenape who had taken up camp with the European settlers in the colony of Pavonia (in present-day Jersey City) in order to evade Mahican (Mohawk) raiders. Kieft, nervous about the presence of an unfamiliar culture in the nascent European settlement, believed that a preemptive attack would be the best course of action to eliminate what he presumed to be an otherwise overwhelming and "invading" contingent of Native Americans.
The result was a slaughter. According to 19th century historian, John Romats Brohead, "Warrior and squaw, sachem and child, mother and babes were alike massacred. Daybreak scarcely ended the furious slaughter. Mangled victims, seeking safety in the thickets, were driven into the river, and parents rushing to save their children, whom the soldiery had thrown into the stream, were driven back into the waters and drowned before the eyes of their unrelenting murderers."
The brutal aftermath of such butchery, now known as the "Pavonia Massacre" or "The Slaughter of the Innocents," saw an unprecedented unification of previously warring tribes residing in New Jersey and Long Island and along the Hudson River. On October 1 of the same year, a united contingent of Algonquin peoples attacked the settlers of Pavonia and razed many of their abodes. This resulted in the death of many Dutch civilians and the temporary evacuation of the colony.
Unfortunately, the Europeans also gave the Lenni Lenape something very unwanted: myriad diseases from across the Atlantic, such as tuberculosis, measles, smallpox, and STDs. In fact, by 1750, the Lenape had lost more than 90 percent of their people, largely in part due to these afflictions.
Although Dutch traders often looked upon the natives with contempt, there was no wide-scale battle between the two tribes during the first years of contact. However, on February 25, 1643, this dynamic changed dramatically, when Willem Kieft - the director of New Netherlands - ordered a strike upon a group of Lenni Lenape who had taken up camp with the European settlers in the colony of Pavonia (in present-day Jersey City) in order to evade Mahican (Mohawk) raiders. Kieft, nervous about the presence of an unfamiliar culture in the nascent European settlement, believed that a preemptive attack would be the best course of action to eliminate what he presumed to be an otherwise overwhelming and "invading" contingent of Native Americans.
The result was a slaughter. According to 19th century historian, John Romats Brohead, "Warrior and squaw, sachem and child, mother and babes were alike massacred. Daybreak scarcely ended the furious slaughter. Mangled victims, seeking safety in the thickets, were driven into the river, and parents rushing to save their children, whom the soldiery had thrown into the stream, were driven back into the waters and drowned before the eyes of their unrelenting murderers."
The brutal aftermath of such butchery, now known as the "Pavonia Massacre" or "The Slaughter of the Innocents," saw an unprecedented unification of previously warring tribes residing in New Jersey and Long Island and along the Hudson River. On October 1 of the same year, a united contingent of Algonquin peoples attacked the settlers of Pavonia and razed many of their abodes. This resulted in the death of many Dutch civilians and the temporary evacuation of the colony.
"Penn's Treaty with the Indians at Shackamaxon" by Benjamin West, 1771-1772
Until 1645, the united tribes continued to sporadically attack the settlers, during what would become to be known as "Kieft's War". Finally, later that year, after the death of 1,600 natives and many Dutch, a truce between the Europeans and the natives was secured. In 1647, Willem Kieft was recalled to the Netherlands to answer for his leadership of the colony, but died in a shipwreck off the coast of Wales.
Peace held for another 8 years until the "Peach Tree War" of 1655, when Pavonia was attacked by a contingent of Lenni Lenape who killed dozens of settlers and took dozens more hostage, ostensibly in retribution for the shooting death of a Lenape woman who had stolen a peach from the orchard of Ensign Van Dyke, a New Amsterdam resident. The new governor of the colony, Peter Stuyvesant, bargained with the natives, setting off negotiations that ended in a peace treaty signed in 1660.
It was not until over two decades later that the Lenni Lenape would encounter a high-ranking European leader not only tolerant of, but amicable with, their people. In 1681, William Penn and 11 other Quakers were given rights to East New Jersey by the British aristocracy, whereupon a series of peace and land acquisition treaties were made with the Lenape (then led by Chief Tananend) in 1682 and 1683. As a Quaker, Penn was an avid believer in peace and camaraderie - no doubt a welcome change for the Lenape!
However, Penn's progeny were not so amicable. in 1737, 19 years after his death, colonial authorities claimed to have found a 1686 treaty, allegedly signed by the indigenous population, that promised as much land between the Delaware and Lehigh Rivers as could be walked in a day - presumably around 40 miles. Thomas Penn, William's heir, hired the colony's three fastest walkers, promising a large sum of money to whomever could traverse the most land. As a result of the infamous "Walking Purchase," the Lenape lost over 1 million square miles of land, unable to fight back when the colonists and Iroquois tribe of Pennsylvania united to enforce the dubious treaty.
Peace held for another 8 years until the "Peach Tree War" of 1655, when Pavonia was attacked by a contingent of Lenni Lenape who killed dozens of settlers and took dozens more hostage, ostensibly in retribution for the shooting death of a Lenape woman who had stolen a peach from the orchard of Ensign Van Dyke, a New Amsterdam resident. The new governor of the colony, Peter Stuyvesant, bargained with the natives, setting off negotiations that ended in a peace treaty signed in 1660.
It was not until over two decades later that the Lenni Lenape would encounter a high-ranking European leader not only tolerant of, but amicable with, their people. In 1681, William Penn and 11 other Quakers were given rights to East New Jersey by the British aristocracy, whereupon a series of peace and land acquisition treaties were made with the Lenape (then led by Chief Tananend) in 1682 and 1683. As a Quaker, Penn was an avid believer in peace and camaraderie - no doubt a welcome change for the Lenape!
However, Penn's progeny were not so amicable. in 1737, 19 years after his death, colonial authorities claimed to have found a 1686 treaty, allegedly signed by the indigenous population, that promised as much land between the Delaware and Lehigh Rivers as could be walked in a day - presumably around 40 miles. Thomas Penn, William's heir, hired the colony's three fastest walkers, promising a large sum of money to whomever could traverse the most land. As a result of the infamous "Walking Purchase," the Lenape lost over 1 million square miles of land, unable to fight back when the colonists and Iroquois tribe of Pennsylvania united to enforce the dubious treaty.
Image from https://ramapoughlenapenation.org/
The Lenni Lenape remained the dominant tribe in New Jersey until around 1720, when the Iroquois invaded the area and subjugated them. Moreover, the Lenape found themselves increasingly crowded out by European settlers, who began building towns.
The Unalachtigo were the first to leave the state, around the year 1725. They departed with the Nanticokes of Maryland, travelling to the Juniata Valley in central Pennsylvania, then the Upper Susquehanna, then joined with other Lenape tribes in Ohio, and finally settled around White River in Indiana. They were followed by the Minsi in 1742, who departed for Wyoming and Wyalusing in Pennsylvania, and then traveled further to present-day Muskingum County in Ohio. Warfare forced their further relocation across Lake Erie to around St Thomas, Ontario.
It is no wonder that in the French and Indian War, the tribe sided with the French against the British and the colonists. However, the end of the conflict saw their defeat. In 1758, the New Jersey Assembly created a permanent reservation for the Brotherton tribe in Indian Mills, Burlington County. In 1802, this Unami subtribe left their reservation at Indian Mills in Burlington County and headed to live with the Stockbridges in Oneida County, New York. Twenty years later, they relocaged to Green Bay, Wisconsin, where they reside to this day. They were compensated $3,551.23 by the state of New Jersey for settlement claims. In 1832, a final claim was made through Bartholomew S. Calvin, an interpreter at the Treaty of Easton in 1758, whereupon the state legislature appropriated $2,000 for the tribe, extinguishing all claims of the Lenape to land in New Jersey.
By the late 1800s, most of the Lenape, displaced from the place they once called "home" for thousands of years, had been relocated to Oklahoma and Canada, in a tale familiar to scholars of Native American history.
It was not until 1879 that a U.S. Federal Court recognized Native Americans as a people protected by federal law, not until 1924, with the passage of the Snyder Act, that they were declared citizens of the United States, and not until 1978, upon the enactment of the American Religious Freedom Act, that they were allowed to practice their religious beliefs.
Three federally-recognized tribes exist in the United States: the Delaware Nation of Anadarko, Oklahoma, the Delaware Tribe of Indians in Bartlesville, Oklahoma, and the Stockbridge-Munsee Community of Bowler, Wisconsin. Three other tribes are recognized at the state level: the Lenape Indian Tribe of Delaware, and the Nanticoke-Lenni Lenape Tribal Nation and the Ramapough Lenape Nation, both of New Jersey.
The Unalachtigo were the first to leave the state, around the year 1725. They departed with the Nanticokes of Maryland, travelling to the Juniata Valley in central Pennsylvania, then the Upper Susquehanna, then joined with other Lenape tribes in Ohio, and finally settled around White River in Indiana. They were followed by the Minsi in 1742, who departed for Wyoming and Wyalusing in Pennsylvania, and then traveled further to present-day Muskingum County in Ohio. Warfare forced their further relocation across Lake Erie to around St Thomas, Ontario.
It is no wonder that in the French and Indian War, the tribe sided with the French against the British and the colonists. However, the end of the conflict saw their defeat. In 1758, the New Jersey Assembly created a permanent reservation for the Brotherton tribe in Indian Mills, Burlington County. In 1802, this Unami subtribe left their reservation at Indian Mills in Burlington County and headed to live with the Stockbridges in Oneida County, New York. Twenty years later, they relocaged to Green Bay, Wisconsin, where they reside to this day. They were compensated $3,551.23 by the state of New Jersey for settlement claims. In 1832, a final claim was made through Bartholomew S. Calvin, an interpreter at the Treaty of Easton in 1758, whereupon the state legislature appropriated $2,000 for the tribe, extinguishing all claims of the Lenape to land in New Jersey.
By the late 1800s, most of the Lenape, displaced from the place they once called "home" for thousands of years, had been relocated to Oklahoma and Canada, in a tale familiar to scholars of Native American history.
It was not until 1879 that a U.S. Federal Court recognized Native Americans as a people protected by federal law, not until 1924, with the passage of the Snyder Act, that they were declared citizens of the United States, and not until 1978, upon the enactment of the American Religious Freedom Act, that they were allowed to practice their religious beliefs.
Three federally-recognized tribes exist in the United States: the Delaware Nation of Anadarko, Oklahoma, the Delaware Tribe of Indians in Bartlesville, Oklahoma, and the Stockbridge-Munsee Community of Bowler, Wisconsin. Three other tribes are recognized at the state level: the Lenape Indian Tribe of Delaware, and the Nanticoke-Lenni Lenape Tribal Nation and the Ramapough Lenape Nation, both of New Jersey.
2019 Nanticoke Lenape Pow Wow. Click image for source!
Furthermore, Canada recognizes three tribes: the Munsee-Delaware Nation, who reside on a reserve near St. Thomas, Ontario, the Moravian of the Thames First Nation, who live near Chatham-Kent, and the Delaware of Six Nations, living near Brantford, Ontario.
Dozens of other unofficial tribes exist across the nation. Over the years, these groups have petitioned the federal government for legal recognition. The Lenni Lenape continue to practice self-governance, and the Nanticoke have even set up an online musem for further education about their history, culture, and common misconceptions.
Ancient tradition is fervently kept alive. Annual Pow Wows - food, dance, music, and craft festivals - reveal the continuity of customs and beliefs long looked on with contempt by European settlers. Community charities, controlled by the tribes, have been established to provide social welfare for their members. The heritage of thousands of years past is still vibrant within these tribes.
In contrast, what remains within West Windsor barely goes beyond the nomenclature with which we refer to natural landmarks and the ancient tools that the "Original People" left behind. The Assunpink, running through the southern half of the township, was named after the Unami subtribe that once resided here. So, too, was Edinburg (also previously known as Assunpink), until its name was changed in the mid-1800s. Along the banks of the aforementioned river, numerous artifacts - including axe heads, arrows, and grinding stones - have been discovered, evoking memories of a now-displaced civilization.
In addition, two large topographical regions of West Windsor evoke specific Lenni Lenape individuals. The first figure - a woman named "Idah" - sold much of the area that would become Grovers Mill to the township's early Dutch Settlers in the 1600s. The second - Moses Tatamy, a mid-1700s land holder and diplomat who bridged the New World and Old World cultures - has been immortalized through the naming of Tatamy's Swamp.⁴⁵ His life is further explored on the Prominent Figures web page.
Even though what persists in West Windsor is but a shadow of the people that once resided here, their presence still lingers, a relic of a civilization long entrenched in the area's history.
Dozens of other unofficial tribes exist across the nation. Over the years, these groups have petitioned the federal government for legal recognition. The Lenni Lenape continue to practice self-governance, and the Nanticoke have even set up an online musem for further education about their history, culture, and common misconceptions.
Ancient tradition is fervently kept alive. Annual Pow Wows - food, dance, music, and craft festivals - reveal the continuity of customs and beliefs long looked on with contempt by European settlers. Community charities, controlled by the tribes, have been established to provide social welfare for their members. The heritage of thousands of years past is still vibrant within these tribes.
In contrast, what remains within West Windsor barely goes beyond the nomenclature with which we refer to natural landmarks and the ancient tools that the "Original People" left behind. The Assunpink, running through the southern half of the township, was named after the Unami subtribe that once resided here. So, too, was Edinburg (also previously known as Assunpink), until its name was changed in the mid-1800s. Along the banks of the aforementioned river, numerous artifacts - including axe heads, arrows, and grinding stones - have been discovered, evoking memories of a now-displaced civilization.
In addition, two large topographical regions of West Windsor evoke specific Lenni Lenape individuals. The first figure - a woman named "Idah" - sold much of the area that would become Grovers Mill to the township's early Dutch Settlers in the 1600s. The second - Moses Tatamy, a mid-1700s land holder and diplomat who bridged the New World and Old World cultures - has been immortalized through the naming of Tatamy's Swamp.⁴⁵ His life is further explored on the Prominent Figures web page.
Even though what persists in West Windsor is but a shadow of the people that once resided here, their presence still lingers, a relic of a civilization long entrenched in the area's history.